A review of the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, vaccines and economic impact of human monkeypox (Mpox) outbreaks

The current monkeypox outbreak is a public health emergency of international concern and is coming in the wake of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Human monkeypox is a viral zoonotic infection caused by monkeypox virus, an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus of the genus Orthopoxvirus and family Poxviridae that also contain smallpox, cowpox, Orf, and vaccinia viruses. Online databases including PubMed, Google Scholar and Web of Science were searched to obtain relevant publications on the epidemiology, treatment, vaccines and the economic impacts of the current monkeypox (Mpox) outbreak.

Pandemy or a new STI - monkeypox cases at the semmelweis university department of dermatology, venereology and dermatooncology

After the global pandemic caused by the coronavirus, another epidemic began to unfold, which again induced fear in the population. This new epidemic is caused by the monkeypox virus and originated in Africa. It mainly spreads among MSM (men who have sex with men) population, so it can be interpreted as a new type of sexually transmitted infection.

Animal diseases - current developments

The health of domesticated animals and wild animals is frequently threatened by animal illnesses. It typically receives less attention and information than illnesses that also impact humans, including the Corona virus. To be able to respond quickly, it is crucial to understand the epidemic's progression and transmission vectors. Numerous new diseases have been reported in the news over the past 20 years, the majority of which having an animal source (zoonoses). Examples from recent times include the West Nile virus, SARS, avian influenza, and monkeypox. Some developing diseases impact both humans and animals, whereas others only affect either animals or humans. All of these emerging or reemerging illnesses, however, have societal repercussions that are frequently connected to regional and global economy. Understanding the effects of newly emerging animal diseases is crucial, as is promoting closer veterinarian and medical professional collaboration, particularly in rural regions. The index cases for newly developing diseases may be illnesses that affect agricultural laborers.

5th International Conference on Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases 2022 (ICTMID 2022), Ipoh, Malaysia, 23-25 August 2022

This proceedings contains 112 s that cover a wide range of topics related to microbiology. The s cover a wide range of topics related to microbiology, including new paradigms in a microbe-threatened world, the human-animal spillover of SARS-CoV-2 and its implications for public health, preparing for the next pandemic, antimicrobial resistance and the fight against it. Furthermore, tuberculosis, monkeypox, and their potential threat on a global scale are also discussed. The presentations also cover a variety of other topics, such as vaccines and vaccinations, COVID-19 vaccines, addressing vaccine hesitancy, key issues related to the COVID-19 healthcare system, regional support for outbreak preparedness, enhancing regional health security in Asia through genomic surveillance, the role of molecular diagnostic capacity in COVID-19 control, antimicrobial resistance in COVID-19 times, paediatric nosocomial infections, prescription ethics from a primary care perspective, the BCG vaccine and its relevance in the prevention of tuberculosis and beyond, tuberculosis as a forgotten pandemic, vector-borne diseases during COVID-19, the role of media advocacy in vector-borne diseases control and management, engaging communities in tackling vector-borne diseases, the way forward in managing mental health in the COVID-19 endemic phase, the spread of zoonotic diseases, and whole genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2: clinical applications and experience.

A Review on Recent Monkey Pox Outbreak in 2022

Monkey pox, a zoonotic disease with clinical symptoms resembling smallpox, unexpectedly broke out and spread over the world after the outbreak of COVID-19, severely affecting several of the continents of the world. Monkey pox is currently a member of the genus otrhopox virus, which is a member of the sub family chorodoxvirinae. According to the available knowledge, small mammals and rodents have all been identified as potential sources of the monkey [ox virus]. The disease is characterized by a short febrile illness with lymphadenopathy followed by a rash which spreads centrifugally and passes through phases of macules, papules, vesicles, and pustules. Recovery occurs in most patients within 2-4 wk. Complications are more likely in children, pregnant women, and the immunocompromised. Specific diagnosis is by detection of viral DNA by PCR.Tecovirimat, brincidofovir, and cidofoviir are the medications used to treat monkey pox, immunoglobulin and new compounds are the vaccinations. This review will introduce a general overview of MPXV and describe the epidemiology, clinical features, evaluation, and treatment of monkey pox patients.Copyright © Journal of Global Trends in Pharmaceutical Sciences.

Summary of global surveillance data of infectious diseases in January 2023

In January 2023, a total of 64 infectious diseases were reported globally, affecting 235 countries and regions. Except for influenza, the top five infectious diseases affecting greatest number of countries and regions were COVID-19 (235), monkeypox (110), dengue fever (31), measles (27) and cholera (15). The top five infectious diseases with highest case fatality rates were Nipah virus disease (62.5%), Ebola virus disease (47.0%), Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (37.5%), Lassa fever (15.1%) and West Nile fever (7.6%). The top five infectious diseases with greatest number of deaths were COVID-19, malaria, cholera, measles and dengue fever. The prevalent infectious diseases in Asia were COVID-19, cholera and dengue fever, the prevalent infectious diseases in Africa were COVID-19, cholera, yellow fever, Lassa fever, malaria and monkeypox, the prevalent infectious diseases in America were COVID-19, cholera, monkeypox, dengue fever and chikungunya fever, the prevalent infectious disease in Europe were COVID-19, monkeypox and invasive group A streptococcus infection.

Computational predictors of the predominant protein function: SARS-CoV-2 case

In this chapter, we describe the main molecular features of SARS-CoV-2 that cause COVID-19 disease, as well as a high-efficiency computational prediction called Polarity Index Method®. We also introduce a molecular classification of the RNA virus and DNA virus families and two main classifications: supervised and non-supervised algorithms of the predictions of the predominant function of proteins. Finally, some results obtained by the proposed non-supervised method are given, as well as some particularities found about the linear representation of proteins. © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC.

Prospect of Vaccinia virus vector vaccine for wildlife

Against a pandemic of emerged infectious disease, COVID-19, new generation vaccines based on nucleic acids or recombinant viruses, which had not been used as vaccines in humans, have been inoculated and shown to be successful. They are, however, heat-labile and need a cold-chain including deep-freezers for storage and transportation. Vaccinia virus (VAC) vector vaccine (VACV) is a pioneer of new generation of vaccines constructed by using molecular biological technology. VACV, which has contributed to eradication of smallpox, has excellent characteristics of vaccinia virus such as a high heat-stability and long-lasting immunological effects. It is possible to distinguish the immunological responses of vaccination from those of natural infections. We started our developmental researches 35 years ago, using attenuated VAC strains established in Japan. In this article, we first describe the early researches of VACVs;development of two VACVs for Bovine leukemia virus and Rinderpest morbillivirus antigens and their protective immunity in large mammals, sheep and cows. Second, application of VACV is described;Rabies-VACV, which has already been licensed, used in the field in Europe and USA, and resulted in a prominent decrease of rabies. Then, current status of VACV research is described;non-replicating VACVs in mammalian cells have been developed as new-generation and ultimately-safe vaccines. We discuss the possibility of future application of VACV for wildlife.

Summary of global surveillance data of infectious diseases in December 2022

In December 2022, a total of 68 infectious diseases were reported globally, affecting 235 countries and regions. Except for influenza, the top five infectious diseases affecting greatest number of countries and regions were COVID-19 (235), monkeypox (110), dengue fever (28), measles (27) and cholera (14). The top five infectious diseases with highest case fatality rates were Ebola virus disease (47.0%), Rift Valley fever (44.2%), Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (40.0%), Lassa fever (17.6%) and West Nile fever (7.6%). The top five infectious diseases with greatest number of deaths were COVID-19, malaria, cholera, dengue fever and measles. The prevalent infectious diseases in Asia were COVID-19, cholera and dengue fever, the prevalent infectious diseases in Africa were COVID-19, cholera, yellow fever, Lassa fever, monkeypox, malaria and measles, the prevalent infectious diseases in America were COVID-19, cholera, monkeypox, dengue fever and chikungunya fever, the prevalent infectious disease in Europe were COVID-19, monkeypox and invasive group A streptococcus infection.

Enhancing vaccination of key populations: lessons and actions

Vaccination is effective in preventing the increase of disease, especially emerging infectious diseases (EIDs), and it is particularly important for people in close contact with infected sources and susceptible populations who are at increased risk of getting infectious diseases due to behavior, occupation or health. Despite targeted vaccination guidelines, inadequate vaccination of the key populations fails to receive widespread attention, resulting in a high-risk transition of disease from key populations to general populations. Strengthening the vaccination of the susceptible groups can effectively block the spread of pathogens to general populations, and reduce the consumption of medical resources in universal vaccination, which has significant economic value. In this review, we describe the prevalence of EIDs, analyze the experience and lessons of infectious disease vaccination in key populations through several cases, and further explore the causes for the decline in vaccination rates of key populations. According to the trends of EIDs, a plan to strengthen the vaccination of key populations is proposed to effectively prevent the transition of EIDs from key populations to general populations.

An Immunoinformatics Approach to Design Novel and Potent Multi-Epitope-Based Vaccine to Target Lumpy Skin Disease

The lumpy skin disease (LSD) virus of the Poxviridae family is a serious threat that mostly affects cattle and causes significant economic loss. LSD has the potential to spread widely and its rapidly across borders. Despite the availability of information, there is still no competitive vaccine available for LSD. Therefore, the current study was conducted to develop an epitope-based LSD vaccine that is efficient, secure, and biocompatible and stimulates both innate and adaptive immune responses using immunoinformatics techniques. Initially, putative virion core proteins were manipulated;B-cell and T-cell epitopes have been predicted and connected with the help of adjuvants and linkers. Numerous bioinformatics methods, including antigenicity testing, transmembrane topology screening, allergenicity assessment, conservancy analysis, and toxicity evaluation, were employed to find superior epitopes. Based on promising vaccine candidates and immunogenic potential, the vaccine design was selected. Strong interactions between TLR4 and TLR9 and the anticipated vaccine design were revealed by molecular docking. Finally, based on the high docking score, computer simulations were performed in order to assess the stability, efficacy, and compactness of the constructed vaccine. The simulation outcomes showed that the polypeptide vaccine design was remarkably stable, with high expression, stability, immunogenic qualities, and considerable solubility. Additionally, computer-based research shows that the constructed vaccine provides adequate population coverage, making it a promising candidate for use in the design of vaccines against other viruses within the Poxviridae family and potentially other virus families as well. These outcomes suggest that the epitope-based vaccine developed in this study will be a significant candidate against LSD to control and prevent LSDV-related disorders if further investigated experimentally.

Viral diseases of poultry in Assam, India: a review

The Indian poultry market is estimated to have an annual growth rate of 8.1% as of today. However, infectious diseases in poultry pose an important constraint in the growth and development of this sector in our region. Among infectious diseases, viral diseases of poultry pose a serious threat to the poultry industry from an economic point of view. Several viral disease outbreaks have been reported by various researchers from different parts of the country. Among the common viral diseases of poultry, incidences of Newcastle disease, Avian Influenza, Fowl Pox, Infectious Bursal Disease, Marek's disease, Infectious Bronchitis, Infectious Laryngotracheitis and Inclusion Body Hepatitis are significant in Assam as well as other parts of India. Thorough epidemiological studies followed by the identification of different serotypes, pathotypes, strains, etc. by genotyping and molecular characterization of viral disease pathogens may lead to ways to control and eradicate the diseases. Importance should be given to maintaining basic preventive measures like biosecurity, farm hygiene, and proper vaccination. In a developing country like India, disease outbreaks can impact the country's economy. In this study, a brief view of the common viral disease of poultry and its diagnosis and control strategies in Assam, India is depicted. However, this review well indicates a plethora of avian diseases that have occurred over the years causing a severe impact on poultry farming as a whole.

Preventing monkeypox outbreaks: Focus on diagnosis, care, treatment, and vaccination.

The first human case of monkeypox virus (Mpox) was reported in 1970. In the years after 1970, human infection with Mpox and human-to-human transmission was not widely observed, and more cases were seen in endemic areas. In that year, Mpox spread was confirmed through the export of infected animals to other parts of the world. Every few years, sporadic infections were reported in different parts of the world from human contamination and human-to-human transmission. In recent years, with the slow decline of the COVID-19 pandemic, the outbreak of Mpox was observed in many countries of the world. To deal with the spread of this viral infection, we need to know the ways to diagnose the infection, treat the infection, care for the patients, and implement a wide program of vaccination. Currently, there are no specific drugs available for this virus, but according to previous studies related to smallpox, drugs such as tecovirimat, cidofovir, and brincidofovir, which were used for smallpox and other orthopoxviruses in the past, can be considered to deal with Mpox. Also, some vaccines such as JYNNEOS, IMVAMUNE, and MoVIHvax that have been used against smallpox can be useful to some extent in preventing Mpox.

Zebrafish-based platform for emerging bio-contaminants and virus inactivation research.

Emerging bio-contaminants such as viruses have affected health and environment settings of every country. Viruses are the minuscule entities resulting in severe contagious diseases like SARS, MERS, Ebola, and avian influenza. Recent epidemic like the SARS-CoV-2, the virus has undergone mutations strengthen them and allowing to escape from the remedies. Comprehensive knowledge of viruses is essential for the development of targeted therapeutic and vaccination treatments. Animal models mimicking human biology like non-human primates, rats, mice, and rabbits offer competitive advantage to assess risk of viral infections, chemical toxins, nanoparticles, and microbes. However, their economic maintenance has always been an issue. Furthermore, the redundancy of experimental results due to aforementioned aspects is also in examine. Hence, exploration for the alternative animal models is crucial for risk assessments. The current review examines zebrafish traits and explores the possibilities to monitor emerging bio-contaminants. Additionally, a comprehensive picture of the bio contaminant and virus particle invasion and abatement mechanisms in zebrafish and human cells is presented. Moreover, a zebrafish model to investigate the emerging viruses such as coronaviridae and poxviridae has been suggested.

Monkeypox virus: A review.

While monkeypox was previously found in Africa, the bulk of occurrences in the present outbreak are being reported in many countries. It is not yet known how this outbreak began, and as the COVID-19 crisis begins to abate, numerous nations throughout the world are now contending with a novel outbreak. Monkeypox is a transmissible virus between animals and humans, belonging to the Orthopoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae family. In the 1970s, cases of monkeypox began increasing due to the cessation of vaccination against smallpox, which drew international attention. The virus was named monkeypox because it was first observed in macaque monkeys. It is thought to be transmitted by several different rodents and small mammals, though the origin of the virus is not known. Monkeypox, while occasionally transmitted from one human to another, can be disseminated through the inhalation of droplets or through contact with the skin lesions of an infected individual. Unfortunately, there is no definitive cure for monkeypox; however, supportive care can be offered to ameliorate its symptoms. In severe cases, medications like tecovirimat may be administered. However, there are no established guidelines for symptom management in monkeypox cases. In this article we have discussed about different aspects of monkeypox including viral structure, transmission, replication, clinical manifestations, vaccination, treatment and current prevalence in the world to understand it better and give insight to the future studies.

A Brief Report on Monkeypox Outbreak 2022: Historical Perspective and Disease Pathogenesis.

Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV). It was an epidemic infection among African countries over the last few decades. In 2022, MPXV has been broke through in Africa, America, Eastern Mediterranean, Europe, South-East Asia, and Western Pacific region. This widespread infection of MPXV has created panic across the nations, and the WHO has declared a global public health emergency due to the multi-country MPX outbreak. We prepared this brief report on the MPX outbreak 2022 by extracting data from Scopus, PubMed, and website databases. We manually read all the relevant articles from our target databases. The rapid spread of MPX infection in around a 100 countries has threatened the global healthcare systems. The available epidemiological data revealed that sexual orientations and encounters are potential contributing factors for monkeypox infections. However, it has not been categorized as a sexually transmitted infection. Also, MPXV can transfer from 1 individual to others in many ways. The empowerment of this old foe has created additional pressure and threat on the healthcare authorities during the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic. Effective preventive measures, social awareness, and therapeutic approaches can reduce this extra burden on the healthcare system across the countries. Focusing only on sexual orientations and encounters as risk factors for MPX infection might increase stigma that will be another barrier to controlling and preventing MPXV spread. Therefore, we should be careful in delivering messages about MPX infection to the general population. Also, we recommend repositioning the existing smallpox vaccines and antivirals in MPX infection until the development of specific antiviral agents against this infection.

Summary of global surveillance data of infectious diseases in may 2022

In May 2022, a total of 66 infectious diseases were reported globally, affecting 233 countries and regions. Except for influenza, the top five infectious diseases affecting greatest number of countries and regions were COVID-19 (233), monkeypox (36), dengue fever (31), measles (24) and cholera (11). The top five infectious diseases with highest case fatality rates were Ebola virus disease (100.0%), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (34.4%), Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (22.2%), Lassa fever (19.8%) and monkeypox (4.0%). The top five infectious diseases with greatest number of deaths were COVID-19, malaria, cholera, dengue fever and measles. The prevalent infectious diseases in Asia were COVID-19, dengue fever and cholera, the prevalent infectious diseases in Africa were COVID-19, Ebola virus disease, cholera, yellow fever, Lassa fever, malaria and monkeypox, the prevalent infectious diseases in America were COVID-19, dengue fever, chikungunya fever and Zika virus disease, the prevalent infectious disease in Europe were COVID-19, monkeypox and acute hepatitis of unknown aetiology.

Risk assessment of public health emergencies concerned in the mainland of China, June 2022

Objective: To assess the risk of public health emergencies, including both indigenous and imported ones, which might occur in the mainland of China in June 2022.

Historical epidemics and the effects of COVID-19 restrictions on human health

In historical and prehistoric times, various pathogens from human origin or from animals to humans have affected millions of people as diseases such as plague, smallpox, and tularemia. It is known that epidemic diseases played a role in the historical records on the way to the collapse of the Hittite state. There are many records of epidemics in ancient Greek and Roman states. Geographical discoveries have opened up new opportunities for the spread of diseases. The corona virus epidemic, which emerged in China at the end of 2019 and spread from there to the whole world, was named COVID-19 by the World Health Organization. It causes problems in many parts of the body in addition to the respiratory tract. COVID-19 has become the biggest epidemic of recent years, affecting millions of people. Restrictions against COVID-19 have raised concerns about health problems in people as well as economy. Psychological problems, anxiety and sleep disorders related to decreased sociality have been reported in many studies. Possible problems due to inactivity are areas where more data can be revealed in the future. The purpose of this review is to gather historical information on past outbreaks and present some of the selected effects of the current Covid-19 outbreak on human health.

Summary of global surveillance data of infectious diseases in March 2022

In March 2022, a total of 63 infectious diseases were reported globally, affecting 230 countries and regions. Except for influenza, the top five infectious diseases affecting greatest number of countries and regions were COVID-19 (230), dengue fever (32), measles (29), chikungunya fever (10) and cholera (9). The top five infectious diseases with highest case fatality rates were Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (33.3%), Rift Valley fever (20.0%), Lassa fever (18.6%), yellow fever (11.3%) and monkeypox (5.5%). The top five infectious diseases with greatest number of deaths were COVID-19, malaria, measles, cholera and Lassa fever. The prevalent infectious diseases in Asia were COVID-19 and dengue fever, the prevalent infectious diseases in Africa were COVID-19, cholera, yellow fever, Lassa fever, malaria, measles and poliomyelitis, the prevalent infectious diseases in America were COVID-19, dengue fever and chikungunya fever, the prevalent infectious disease in Europe was COVID-19.